Found this interesting article on updates that have happened in Java since version 8- https://ondro.inginea.eu/index.php/new-features-in-java-versions-since-java-8/

Java 8 is still the most popular version of Java, though Java 17 is a recent Long term support version. Java 8 was an instant hit with the release of features like functional interfaces, Lambda expressions, Streams, Optional classes, etc. The post mentioned above talks about updates since Java 8. Here are some important features introduced as per my understanding

• Module System
• Var – Local-Variable Type Inference
• New HTTP Client
• Switch Expressions
• Text Blocks
• Sealed Classes

Modularization introduced in Java 9 is to help developers call out explicitly what are they going to use in their application and what features are they ready to expose.

You can see that JDK itself now is viewed as a combination of modules rather than a single monolith unit. One can mention all modules they are going to use in the application and keep the application lightweight. This can be done by adding a “requires” section in the module-info file.

Another problem Modules solve is when you are sharing your library (a jar), it exposes all the packages, though you might not want users to play around with internal helper files. The “exports” keyword gives you control over what is being exposed from the package.

Sample module-info.java

module java.mymodule {
  requires java.sql;
  exports java.util.string;
}

Recommended Reading

• https://www.oracle.com/in/corporate/features/understanding-java-9-modules.html
• https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/jpms-java-platform-module-system/

Java 8 arguably is the most common of the Java versions and I see many projects still use Java 8. Among many other features, two of the essential elements released with Java 8 were Lambda expressions and streams. Here are some old notes recap on these topics.

Sometime back I wrote about Collections Framework. Here let me take a slightly deeper look into some of the concrete implementations with examples.

List Implementations

ArrayList: Simply put, this provides dynamic array implementation in Java.

LinkedList: Implementation of Linked List data structure. Provides methods like add and remove.

Vector: It is a synchronized ArrayList.

Stack: Implementation of Stack data structure. Provides methods like push and pop.

Queue Implementations

PriorityQueue: Implement First In, First Out. If Comparator is provided, it will be used for Priority management.

public class PriorityQueueDemo {
    
  public static void main(String args[])
  {
      PriorityQueue<Integer> pQueue = new PriorityQueue<Integer>();

      pQueue.add(10);
      pQueue.add(20);
      pQueue.add(15);

      System.out.println(pQueue.peek());
      System.out.println(pQueue.poll());
      System.out.println(pQueue.peek());
  }
}

Output

10
10
15

Dequeue Implementation

ArrayDequeue: Double-ended queue implementation. Provides methods like add, addFirst, addLast.

Set Implementations

HashSet: Implementation of hash table data structure. Do not guarantee order.

LinkedHashSet: Uses a doubly linked list and hence maintains the order.

Sorted Set Implementation

TreeSet: Ordering is maintained as natural order or explicit comparator based ordering.

public class TreeSetDemo {  
  public static void main(String args[])
  {
      TreeSet<String> ts = new TreeSet<String>();

      ts.add("this");
      ts.add("is");
      ts.add("just");
      ts.add("a");
      ts.add("test");

      Iterator<String> itr = ts.iterator();
      while (itr.hasNext()) {
          System.out.println(itr.next());
      }
  }
}

Output

a
is
just
test
this

As the name suggests, a Java Collection is a collection of objects represented as a single unit. The idea is to provide a set of operations on the logically grouped elements like searching, sorting, etc.

As the image above shows, there are two core interfaces, Collection and Map. The collection further has interfaces for List, Queue, and Set. For each of these interfaces than we have a concrete set of classes implementing the functionality.

Let’s take a very simple example

Collection values = new ArrayList();
values.add(1);
values.add(2);
values.add("kamal");

We can see collection interface helps us create a new ArrayList, which gives us flexibility over the array where the List can grow during runtime.

But one challenge we can see in the code above is that when we are able to add numbers as well as String to the ArrayList. This is in contrast with the type safety provided by Java. To solve this Java provides us Generics to control over types of elements that can be added to a collection.

Generics Example

class MyClass<T>{
T value;

public T getValue() {
return value;
}

public void setValue(T value) {
this.value = value;
}
}

Coming to our previous code for creating collections

Collection<Integer> values = new ArrayList<>();
values.add(1);

In this example, we cannot add a String to values now.

What if we want to get or add into ArrayList at a particular index. List Interface adds these features on top of Collection. As already depicted in the hierarchy, List inherits Collection and then adds features on top of it.

List<Integer> values = new ArrayList<>();
values.add(1);
int num = values.get(0);

Iterating over a Collection

There are multiple ways to iterate over a collection

List<Integer> values = new ArrayList<>();
values.add(1);
values.add(2);
values.add(3);
Iterator<Integer> i= values.iterator();
while(i.hasNext()) {
    System.out.println(i.next());
}

Another way is to use for loop

for(Integer num:values) {
   System.out.println(num);
}

Or we can use Streams

values.stream().forEach(System.out::println)

Comparable vs Comparator

Another important thing one would like to do with the collection is to arrange elements in sorted order. For example, say we have a List created for Student class objects, and we want to arrange based on Roll numbers.

The easiest way is to make the class implement comparable

class Student implements Comparable<Student>{

 int rollno;
 String name;

 public Student(int rollno, String name) {
  this.rollno=rollno;
  this.name=name;
 }

 @Override
 public int compareTo(Student o) {
  return this.rollno<o.rollno?-1 : (this.rollno==o.rollno)?0:1;
 }
}

// In calling code, we can sort list made up of students 
Collections.sort(list);

There can be cases where it is handy to maintain comparison based on multiple criteria. For example, along with roll number, we want to make sure we can sort the list of students based on names in alphabetical order. In such a case it makes sense to implement Comparator as we can implement multiple comparators based on our need.

class NameComparator implements Comparator<Student>{
 @Override
 public int compare(Student o1, Student o2) {
  return o1.name.compareTo(o2.name);
 }
}

// In calling code, we will send compatator instance 
Collections.sort(list, new NameComparator());